Fibre to Fabric - Animal Fibres - Class 7 Science

Clothes are an important part of our lives. We wear clothes to cover us, to protect us from extreme weather condition and harmful insects and animals. Clothes worn by people also give information about their social, geographical and economic conditions. In this chapter we will learn about Natural fibres - silk and wool.

Fabric - The material that is used to make clothing is called fabric.
Fibre - Fibre is the basic material from which the fabric that you use is made. Fibres are spun into yarn. This yarn is then woven or knitted into a fabric.Fibres are classified into two types:

Natural Fibres

Synthetic Fibres

Silk

Properties of Silk:

Smooth texture and shiny look

One of the strongest fibres

One of the most expensive fabrics

Silk is produced from silkworms

History

According to a Chinese Legend, around 5000 years ago, the queen of Emperor Huang-ti was having tea in the garden when one yellow colored cocoon feel into her tea and strands of thread separated from it. She discovered the thread to be strong and started weaving it into fabric. Hence, started the silk industry of China. The Chinese kept the silk production a secret for many years while trading it with other civilizations and making huge profits. The route taken by the Chinese traders for the exchange of silk is known as silk route. Eventually silkworms were smuggled out of China and production of silk began in other countries. China till date remains the largest producer of silk in the world.

Making of Silk

Silk is made from cocoons which silkworms spin around themselves. A single thread of a cocoon can be upto 1600 metres long. The structure of silk is like protein. It is a poor conductor of heat and keeps the body warm in winter and cool in summer. The silk producing insects are actually the larvae of silk moth, Bombyx mori, are domesticated for large production of silk.

Raising silkworms

A silk moth lays about 200-300 eggs and dies. The eggs are kept in temperature range of 25 to 31 C in highly humid conditions, for a gestation period of about three weeks. After that worms hatch out. The worms are then kept in bamboo trays and fed on mulberry leaves. The worms are protected from harmful insects by wrapping the trays with cotton cloth. The worms are continuously fed, cleaned and moved for 2-3 weeks, after that worms stop feeding, each silkworm now secretes liquid silk from an opening under its mouth. Within 2-3 days, they form a full cocoon around themselves called pupa. The pupa undergoes many changes inside the cocoon. A few weeks later, the adult moth comes out of the cocoon.

Extracting thread

The cocoons are then put in pots of boiling water to kill the insect inside and to make the outer coating soft and loose. Then the threads are pulled out by a special technique called reeling of silk.

Dyeing and spinning

The silk after reeling is dyed in different colors and spun into yarn. Different qualities of silk are separated based on the length and texture of the yarn.

Weaving

The yarn is then woven into beautiful fabrics.

Wool

Sources and Making of wool

Animals like sheep, yak, llama, alpaca, few breeds of goats etc. bear fine hair on their bodies to keep them warm. These fibres are the source of wool for us. Sometimes, special breeds of sheep are chosen to produce offspring which have very fine hair. This is called selective breeding.

Rearing and breeding

Sheep are reared and bred in herds in the mountains and open areas. Sheep feed mostly on grass and leaves; they are also given grains, corns and oil cakes. When the sheep have a thick layer of hair on their body, they are ready for shaving.

Shearing

Shearing is the process of removing the hair coat from a sheep’s body. The hair coat is removed using mechanical razors. Shearing is mainly done in summer as the temperature is hot and sheep can live without the fur. The hair removed from the sheep’s body is called fleece.

Scouring

The fleece contains lot of grease, skin and other waste materials. It is thoroughly washed with soap or detergents or diluted acid solution so that the fleece is clear of waste. This is called scouring.

Sorting

After washing and drying, wool fibres are separated into different categories based on the texture. This process is known as sorting.

Removing of burr

Here the fluffy fibres known as burr are removed and the wool is washed again.

Dyeing

The wool is then dyed into different colors.

Making yarn

After dyeing, the wool is combed either manually or in machines. Lastly the fibres undergo spinning to form the woolen yarn. The woolen warn is then knitted into clothes.

Occupational Hazards

Exposure to chemical agents

Many chemicals are used during the process of making wool from fleece and silk from silkworm. The chemicals are primarily used during dyeing, bleaching, washing etc. such chemicals can pose health hazards like respiratory disorders, skin problems, allergies, cancer etc.

Exposure to dust and fibres

The exposure of workers to dust from materials like silk, wool, cotton, flax, jute during weaving, spinning, cutting, packaging can cause allergies, nasal or bladder cancer.

Some Indian breeds of sheep

S.No.	Name of breed	Quality of wool	State where found
1	Lohi	Good quality wool	Rajasthan, Punjab
2	Rampur bushair	Brown fleece	Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh
3	Nali	Carpet wool	Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab
4	Bakharwal	For woolen shawls	Jammu and Kashmir
5	Marwari	Coarse wool	Gujarat
6	Patanwadi	For hosiery	Gujarat

Practice Time

Objective Type Questions

1. Fill in the blanks:
1. Silk is produced by         
2. The production of silk is called         
3. The silkworms feed on         
4. The hair obtained from sheep is called         
5. Scouring of fleece is done after         
Answers

1.silkworms
2.sericulture
3.mulberry leaves
4.fleece
5.shearing



2. True or False:
1. Sorting refers to washing of fleece:
2. Silkworms are actually larvae of silkmoths:
3. Shearing can kill the sheep:
4. To obtain silk, the silkworms are killed:
5. Wool is an insulator of heat:


3. Choose the correct answer
1. Which kind of cloth can be used in both summer and winter?
1. a.silk
2. b.wool
3. c.both a and b


2. Why are cotton clothes more common than silk cloth?
1. Cotton is less expensive than silk
2. Cotton clothes can be used in all seasons
3. both a and b


3. Is the fleece obtained from sheep is wool?
1. yes
2. no, it contains waste material


4. What is the difference between wool and beard of sheep?
1. wool is coarse
2. beard is coarse
3. there is no difference


5. Does silk need to be detangled like wool?
1. no, silk is obtained directly as thread from cocoon
2. yes


4. Match the following



Column A	Column B
1. Mulberry leaves	a. goats
2. Sericulture	b. silkworms
3. Scouring	c. silk thread
4. Reeling	d. fleece
5. Angora	e. making silk

Very Short-Answer Questions

5. Answer in a word or two:
1. Name two wool yielding animals.
2. Name the plant on whose leaves silk worm feed on.
3. Nane one occupational hazard related to wool industry.
4. Name the moth used for obtaining silk.
5. Write two properties of silk.

Short-Answer Questions

6. Answer the following in brief:
1. Define sericulture
2. Why are sheep shaved in summer?
3. Why is shearing not painful for sheep?
4. How does the silkworm product silk?
5. What is meant by sorting in wool production?

Read More

Nicholas Nye - Class 9 English

Nicholas Nye

By, Walter De La Marie

Thistle and darnell and dock grew there,
And a bush, in the corner, of may,
On the orchard wall I used to sprawl
In the blazing heat of the day;

Half asleep and half awake,
While the birds went twittering by,
And nobody there my lone to share
But Nicholas Nye.

Nicholas Nye was lean and gray,
Lame of leg and old,
More than a score of donkey’s years
He had been since he was foaled;
He munched the thistles, purple and spiked,
Would sometimes stoop and sigh,
And turn his head, as if he’d said,
'Poor Nicholas Nye!'

Alone with his shadow he’d drowse in the meadow,
Lazily swinging his tail,
At break of day he used to bray,-
Not much too hearty and hale;
But a wonderful gumption was under his skin,
And a clean calm light in his eye,
And once in a while; he’d smile:-
Would Nicholas Nye.

Seem to be smiling at me, he would,
From his bush in the corner, of may,-
Bony and ownerless, widowed and worn,
Knobble-kneed, lonely and gray;
And over the grass would seem to pass
‘Neath the deep dark blue of the sky,
Something much better than words between me
And Nicholas Nye.

But dusk would come in the apple boughs,
The green of the glow-worm shine,
The birds in nest would crouch to rest,
And home I’d trudge to mine;
And there, in the moonlight, dark with dew,
Asking not wherefore nor why,
Would brood like a ghost, and as still as a post,
Old Nicholas Nye

Word meanings:

darnet    a type of grass commounly found growing in fields in Europe

dock    a plant of the buckwheat family with greenish or reddish flowers and long, broad leaves

may    the may blossom; a hawthorn plant

sprawl    slump; lounge; to lie with the arms and legs spread awkwardly

lone    lonely (state)

foal    a young horse

thistle    a prickly plant with purple flower heads surrounded by thorny leaves

gumption    courage, bravery

knoble-knee    knees that are uneven and bent inwards

    Exercises    

1. Questions


1. In what way does the poet feel close to the donkey?
Ans: The poet feels close to the donkey as each of them give the other a company. When the speaker sprawled alone in the orchard lonely, there was only Nicholas Nye with whom he could share his loneliness. The poet could empathize his loneliness with the miserable condition of the donkey.


2. How does the poet pass his day?
Ans: The poet passes his day in the blazing heat by sprawling on the orchard wall half asleep and half awake.


3. How does the donkey pass his day?
Ans: The donkey would pass his day by munching(chewing) the thistles. Sometimes it would stoop and sigh. In evening it would bray though not full of energy and liveliness, however, there would be boldness to make a smile showing the calmness in his eye.


4. What physical description does the poet give of the donkey?
Ans: Nicholas Nye - the donkey, was thin with gray colored hair, its one leg was lame(defective) and it was old as its age was over 20 years.


5. What characteristics does the poet see in the donkey?
   Which phrases give us clues about his character?
Ans: The poet describes the donkey as lonely this clue can be derived from the phrase "Alone with his shadow he’d drowse in the meadow, and Knobble-kneed, lonely and gray;". The poet also described it as gritty, inspite of all miseries there was calmness in its eye and a smile once in a while, this trait can be derived from the phrase "Not much too hearty and hale;..., And a clean calm light in his eye, And once in a while; he’d smile:-".


6. How are the natural aspects of the field and its surrounding described by the poet?
Ans: The field is an orchard covered with thistles, darnell, dock, in one corner of the orchard was a bush with may. The orchard had walls, birds flew and twittered in the orchard.


2. Reference to context

Read these lines from the poem, then answer the questions.


1. Half asleep and half awake,
   While the birds went twittering by,


1. Who or what is half asleep?
Ans: The poet(speaker) is half asleep.


2. When and where is the subject half asleep?
Ans: The subject is half asleep on the orchard wall.


3. Is the subject alone?
Ans: The subject was lonely in the orchard,however, there was Nicholas Nye(the donkey) as well in the orchard.


2. But a wonderful gumption was under his skin,
   And a clear calm light in his eye,


1. What does 'gumption' mean?
Ans: Gumption means gritty (showing courage and resolve).


2. Why is it surprising that the subject has gumption?
Ans: The subject (now the donkey) has gumption(grit willed) because inspite of all his miseries there was calmness in his eyes and a smile once in a while.


3. What is being said prior to this about the subject?
Ans: Before mentioning 'gumption' the poet(speaker) tells about his physical characteristics - lean, gray haired, old, one leg lame; then the speaker tells how it would munch the thistles sometimes stooping and heaving a sigh as if to describe its miserable condition, further the speaker tells that it would be half asleep in the meadow, lazily waging its tail, in evening it would bray though not full of energy and liveliness.

Read More

The Tide Rises, the Tide Falls - Class 9 English

The Tide Rises, the Tide Falls

By, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

The tide rises, the tide falls,
The twilight darkens, the curlew calls;
Along the sea-sands damp and brown
The traveller hastens towards the town,
    And the tide rises, the tide falls.

Darkness settles on roofs and walls,
But the sea, the sea in the darkness calls;
The little waves, with their soft, white hands,
Efface the footprints in the sands,
    And the tide rises, the tide falls.

The morning breaks; the steeds in their stalls
Stamp and neigh, as the hostler calls;
The day returns, but nevermore
Returns the traveller to the shore,
    And the tide rises, the tide falls.

Word meanings:

twilight    the light from the sky when the sun is below the horizon

curlew    a large wading bird

hastens    walking hurriedly

efface    to erase a mark from a surface

hostler    person employed to care for horses

---

---

    Exercises    

1. Questions


1. What time of day is it in each stanza?
Ans: In the first stanza it is evening, in the second stanza it is night and in the third stanza it is morning.


2. Where is the traveller going?
Ans: The traveller is going back to the town.


3. Which verb describes the traveller's movement; what idea does it create?
Ans. The traveller's movement is described by "hastens", it means that the traveller is waking fast.


4. What human attributes does the sea have, and what does it do with them?
Ans. The tides of sea rises and falls and so does such resemble human attributes - ups and downs, happiness and sadness of life. As the sea waves clear the traces of footsteps on the sand and moves on so does human; the obstacles, hindrances in one's life are overcome and we keep moving on.


5. Which parts of the poem seem old fashioned to you?
Ans: The repetition of the lines "And the tide rises, the tide falls" seem old fashioned as one is already aware of this eternal and never-ending process.


6. Which parts of the final stanza could symbolize the start of a working day?
Ans: "The morning breaks";"the steeds in their stalls stamp and neigh, as the hostler calls"; "Returns the traveller to the shore" symbolizes the start of a working day.


7. In what way are the cycles of time and tide constant (and keep going)?
Ans. The tide rise and the tide fall can be co-related with life: birth and death; the rising of the tide symbolizes birth and the falling of the tide symbolizes death. This phase is eternal and we cannot evade it.


8. What is the significance of the different times of the day mentioned in the poem?
Ans. The significance of the different times of the day mentioned in the poem conjugate with the passing of time in a human life cycle; the first stanza starts at evening which signifies old age; the second stanza describes night which signifies death; the third stanza describes morning which signifies birth.


9. What is the tone of the speaker in the poem?
Ans. The tone in the poem starts with a sad, subdued note and then gradually shifting into a peaceful, calm, relaxed tone towards the end.



---



2. Reference to context

Read these lines from the poem, then answer the questions.

1. Along the sea-sands damp and brown


1. Which living things are on or near the sea-sands?
Ans: The "curlew" and the "traveller".


2. What are they doing?
Ans: The curlew is calling, and the traveller is hastening towards town.


3. What happens to all living things?
Ans: All living things face death.


4. Why do you think the poet uses the word sea-sands rather than the beach?
Ans: The poet uses the word sea-sands rather than the beach to sync with the words "damp and brown", if the poet would have used beach then it would have meant a pebbly or sandy shore. Also sea-sand is a better comparative than beach to comprehend the line "Efface the footprints in the sands".


2. ...but nevermore
   Returns the traveller to the shore,


1. What does return to the shore?
Ans: The traveller returns to the shore.


2. Will anyone know that the traveller was there?Why/why not?
Ans: This is somewhat vague as the poet doesn't specify details, he leaves us in a trail of mysteriousness.


3. What do you think has happened to the traveller?
Ans: The poet's withholding of information is key to the poem's meaning. The speaker narrated about one's life journey which is unknowable, inevitable and final. A presumption can be derived from the line "The traveller hastens towards the town," that the traveller must have reached an old age.


3. Darkness settles on roofs and walls,
   But the sea, the sea in the darkness calls;


1. What time of day is being referred to?
Ans: The time of day being referred to is night time.


2. Why does the sea appear to call?
Ans: The sea cannot call but the poet personifies it to life and states death is calling.


3. Give an antonym of the word "darkness".
Ans: The antonym of the word "darkness" in accordance of the poem is "morning" or "hope".


4. But the sea, the sea in the darkness calls;


1. Who calls in the darkness?
Ans: The sea calls in the darkness.


2. What are the things being done at this point?
Ans: The things that are being done at this point are : the waves of the sea erases the footprints in the sands, and the tide rises and the tide falls.


3. Why is the word "sea" repeated in the poem?
Ans: The word "sea" is repeated in the poem to personify "life" as the tides keep rising and falling and so does birth and death happens in a life-cycle.


5. The day returns, but nevermore
   Returns the traveller to the shore,


1. Why does the traveller not return to the shore?
Ans: The traveller does not return because he must have died.


2. What is meant by "nevermore"?
Ans. "Nevemore" means never again.


3. What time of day is mentioned here?
Ans: Morning time is referred here.

Read More

Tom Comes Home - Class 7 English

Quick Answers

1. Answer the following questions in not more than one sentence.


1. From where does Tom return?
Ans. Tom returns from school to home for the holidays.

2. What does he get for Maggie?
Ans. Tom got a fish-line.

3. What had Maggie forgotten while Tom was away?
Ans. Maggie forgot to feed the rabbits.

4. Where does Maggie go after she tells Tom the truth about her mistake?
Ans. Maggie runs to her attic.

5. What does Tom take for Maggie whe he goes upstairs to call her?
Ans. Tom took a cake.

6. What does Tom wish for?
Ans. Tom wished that it would be wonderful if they got bigger and still went to school.


Reference to context

2. But Tom, all your rabbits are dead!
1. Who says this?
Ans. Maggies said that.
2. Why did the rabbits die?
Ans. The rabbits died because Maggie forgot to feed them.
3. How does Tom react to this piece of news?
Ans. Tom was shocked and angry on hearing the news.


3. Perhaps she is up in the attic and has forgotten all about meal times.
1. Who speaks the above line and about whom?
Ans. Mrs. Tulliver spoke the above line regarding Maggie.
2. Why is she in the attic?
Ans. Maggie was in the attic as Tom was angry and scolded her, he even told that she won't be going with him tomorrow for fishing.
3. When does she come down?
Ans. Maggie came down when Tom asked her to come downstairs and have some tea.


4. Oh, you are making me impatient!
1. Who says this and to whom?
Ans. Maggies said that to Tom.
2. What is making the speaker impatient?
Ans. The speaker "Maggie" wanted to know what was in Tom's pocket.
3. What do they decide to do after the suspense is revealed?
Ans. Tom told that he has two new-fish lines and they decided to go fishing tomorrow down by the Round Pool.

Read, reflect and write

5. Tom is unnecessarily harsh towards Maggie on learning that his rabbits have died. Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer.

Ans. Yes, Tom was unnecessarily harsh towards Maggie after learning that his rabbits have died, he blamed her by saying that she forgot to feed them, out of anger he even said that she is a bad girl, and will not even take her to the Round Pool for fishing the day after. Maggie mentioned that she did not want them dead, she couldn't help to save them, she wanted to tell the reason but without listening Tom scolded.


6. Why does Maggie go to the attic? What happens when she sees Tom in the attic?

Ans. Once Tom knew about the death of his rabbits he became angry and scolded Maggie, Maggie would have wanted to tell but Tom paid no heed, she stood motionless, sobbing, as she was hurt and sad she ran towards her attic. When she saw Tom in the attic, she asked him to forgive her, told him that she will always be good and remember things.


7. Extended writing: Maggie and Tom share a strong bond. Give instances from the text to support this statement.

Ans. Intially when Tom came, he told Maggie that he got two fish-lines one for himself and the other for her and they would both go for fishing tomorrow.
After Tom went to his sister's attic, she asked for forgiveness, Tom asked her not to cry and gave her a cake to eat. He then asked her to come downstairs and have a cup of tea.
Once Maggie enquired if they could go fishing tomorrow and if he could put worms in her hook, Tom readily agreed.
Also after fishing they wished that how wonderful it would be if they got bigger and still went to school and holidays would be fun.

Word Wall

Analogies

1. An analogy is a way of stating a comparative relationship between two sets of words. Compare the analogies below.

a.	catch	:	fish	::	harvest	:	grain
b.	author	:	story	::	poet	:	poem
c.	plane	:	hangar	::	car	:	garage
d.	slither	:	snakd	::	waddle	:	duck
e.	canvas	:	painter	::	marble	:	sculptor
f.	bouquet	:	flowers	::	team	:	players
g.	animals	:	zoology	::	plants	:	botany

Read More

Important Algebra Formulas and Identities with Step by Step

Important Algebra Formulas and Identities

Formula - Formula is a mathematical expression or rule.
Identity - An identity is an equation that is true for all the values of the variables.

Formulas

1. (a + b)² = a² + b² + 2ab
2. (a - b)² = a² + b² - 2ab
3. a² - b² = (a+b)(a-b)
4. a² + b² = (a+b)² -2ab
5. (a+b+c)² = a ² + b ² + c ² + 2ab + 2bc + 2ac
6. (a-b-c)² = a ² + b ² + c ² - 2ab + 2bc - 2ac
7. (a + b)³ = a³ + b³ + 3a²b + 3ab²
                   = a³ + b³ + 3ab(a+b)
8. (a - b)³ = a³ - b³ - 3a²b + 3ab²
                   = a³ - b³ - 3ab(a-b)
9. a³ + b³ = (a+b)(a² - ab + b²)
10. a³ - b³ = (a-b)(a² + ab + b²)

Deducing the Important Formulas

1. a² = a * a

---

2. (a + b)² = (a + b)(a + b)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

                = a² + ab + ab + b²

                = a² + 2ab + b²

---

3. (a – b)² = (a – b)(a – b)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

               = a² - ab - ab + b²

               = a² - 2ab + b²

---

4 (i). a² + b² = (a + b)² – 2ab                     [ Back to Formulas ]

[As (a + b)²  = a² + 2ab + b² and to get a² + b²  we only need to add – 2ab]

 (ii). a² + b² = (a - b)² + 2ab  

[As (a - b)²  = a² - 2ab + b² and to get a² + b²  we only need to add + 2ab]

---

5 (i). a² - b² = (a - b)² + 2ab – 2b²                  [ Back to Formulas ]

[As (a - b)²  = a² - 2ab + b² and  to get a² - b² we only need to add  + 2ab and – 2b²]  = (a - b)² + 2b (a – b)

          = (a – b) [ (a – b) + 2b]

          = (a – b)(a + b)

 (ii). a² - b² = (a + b)² - 2ab – 2b²

[As (a + b)²  = a² + 2ab + b² and  to get a² - b² we only need to add  - 2ab and – 2b²]

          = (a + b)²  - 2b (a + b)

          = (a + b) [ (a + b) - 2b]

          = (a + b)(a – b)

---

6.(a + b + c)² = (a + b + c)(a + b + c)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

                   = a(a + b + c) + b(a + b + c) + c(a + b + c)

                   = a² + ab + ac + ab + b² + bc + ac + bc + c²

                   = a² + b² + c² + ab + ab + ac + ac + bc + bc

                   = a² + b² + c² + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc

---

7.(a - b - c)² = (a - b - c)(a - b - c)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

                   = a(a - b - c) - b(a - b - c) - c(a - b - c)

                   = a² - ab - ac - ab + b² + bc - ac + bc + c²

                   = a² + b² + c² - ab - ab - ac - ac + bc + bc

                   = a² + b² + c² - 2ab - 2ac + 2bc

---

Read More

Prepositions - Class 7, Class 9 - Grammar

Preposition - A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a noun-equivalent to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
Phrasal Prepositions - These are phrases working as prepositions.

Example - by means of, on account of etc.

Some Important Prepositions

---

Since & For

Since is used before a point of time, while for is used before a period of time.

Example - I did not see you for a long time.
My cousin brother has been here since Monday last.

---

Since and From

Both since and from are used before a point of time but since is preceeded by a verb in the perfect tense, while from can be used with any tense.

Example - Albert has started rowing from (or since) Monday last.
Albert started rowing from yesterday. (not since)
Albert started rowing from today. (not since)
Albert will start rowing from tomorrow. not since

---

Before, by & within

Before and by are used with a point of time, while within is used with a period of time. Before means any time within specified limit of time and by means not after the specified limit of time.

Example - You must come back by 8pm. (not after 8pm)
You must come back before 8pm. (any time before 8pm)
Albert came back within an hour. (not before)

---

In & within

In means at the end of while within means before the end of.

Example - The movie will end within an hour. (before the hour is passed)
The movie will end in an hour. (at the end of the hour)

---

In & into

In refers to position already inside anything and into refers to a movement towards the inside of anything.

Example - I am in the garden.
I went into the garden.

---

In & at

In refers to a much wider space or time than at.

Example - Lady Hydari Park is at Shillong in Meghalaya.

---

In & after

In is used about the future time, while after is used about the past.

Example - I will come in a few minutes.
I have left after an hour.

---

On & at

On is used before a particular date or day and at before a particular hour.

Example - I shall come on Friday at 9 o'clock.

---

Between & among

Between is used about two persons or things, while among is used for referring to more than two persons or things.

Example - The money was divided between the two workers.
She is the most beautiful among all the girls in her class.

---

Beside & besides

Beside means by the side of while besides means in addition to.

Example - Besides Mayank, his friends also sat beside me.

---

By & with

By is used with the doer or agent while with is used before the object with which a person does a thing.

Example - The online test was not done by me.
The online test was done with the help of my friend.

---

Except & excepting

Except means without while excepting means without excluding.

Example : Everyone came to the party except Albert. (Albert did not come)
Everyone not excepting Albert came to the party. (Albert came)

---

To

To is used to refer direction or destination.

Example - After the lockdown, students need to go to school.

---

Read More

Tenses - Class 7, Class 9 Grammar

Tense - The tense is the change of form in a verb to express the time of an action. There are three principal tenses.

The Present Tense describes an action in the present time.

The Past Tense describes an action in the past time

The Future Tense describes an action in the future time

Each of these principal tenses has four forms : Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous.

Tenses		Present	Past	Future
Indefinite	Rule	Subject + V1 form	Subject + V2 form	Subject + will/shall + V1 form
	Use	Universal truth, habitual action	Action in the past	Action that will happen in the future
Continuous	Rule	Subject + is/am/are + V (ing) form	Subject + was/were + V (ing) form	Subject + will be/shall be + V (ing) form
	Use	Action going on at present	Action that was goint on at past	Action as going on at some future time
Perfect	Rule	Subject + has/have V3 form	Subject + had + V3 form	Subject + will have/shall have + V3 form
	Use	Action just finished	Action complete before another past action	Action that will be completed in future
Perfect Continuous	Rule	Subject + has been + V (ing) form + since/for	Subject + had been + V (ing) form + since/for	Subject + will have been/shall have been + V (ing) form + since/for
	Use	Action going on and is not finished	Action had been going on in the past	No longer in practical use

Read More

In 1192, Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by Muhammad Ghuri in the Second Battle of Tarain.With this came to end the rule of Chahamana Rajput and a new line of rulers came to power, the new rulers were the Turks from Central Asia or Afghans called the Sultans.

The Sultans of Delhi - Class 7 History

The Sultanate period - 1206 CE to 1526 CE (320 years)

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

	Name	Know This
1	Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)	During his regime Qutb Minar in Delhi the tallest brick minaret was started. He died in 1210.
2	Aram Shah	Aram Shah was a weak ruler so was overthrown by Iltutmish
3	Iltutmish (1211-1236)	He ruled for 25 years. He introduced the silver coin known as tanka and the copper coin called jital. During his regime Qutb Minar was completed. He nominated his daughter Razia as his successor.
4	Razia (1236-1239)	The The nobles under her did not like Razia’s manners so they plotted against her and killed her.
5	Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban (1266-1287)	He died in 1287 and thus came the end of Slave Dynasty and the rule of Khaljis began

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

	Name	Know This
1	Jalal-ud-Din-Khalji	During his regime the Mongols attacked but he fought bravely against them and defended the Sultanate. In 1294 he was murdered by his nephew Ala-ud-Din Khalji.
2	Ala-ud-Din-Khalji	He conquered almost all of North India and most part of South India with the help of his favorite slave Malik Kafur. Ala-ud-Din died in 1316
3	Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah	The third and last ruler of the Khalji Dynasty. He abolished all taxes and penalties. He released all prisoners of war who were captured in battles. Khusru Khan his own slave killed him. Thus the Khalji dynasty came to an end.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1321–1414)

	Name	Know This
1	Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq	– He successfully defended the Sultanate from the Mongols. He conquered many areas including the Eastern part of Bengal. He built the city of Tughlaqabad outside Delhi. He died in 1325.
2	Muhammad Bin Tughlaq	The son of Ghiyas-ud-Din became the next successor. He was a knowledgeable person. His decisions were not popular with his subjects like shifting his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in Andhra Pradesh, increasing taxes in fertile Doab region met with failure. He died in 1351.
3	Firoz Shah Tughlaq	Successor of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. He ensured that people in his kingdom were happy. He was not a strong military leader though so he was unable to defend the Sultanate. He died in 1388. The Tughlaq Dynasty lasted for another 26 years however none of the successors were able to prevent the collapse of the Sultanate.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

	Name	Know This
1	Khizr Khan	In 1398 the Timur the ruler of Balkh in central Asia invaded India and attacked Delhi. While leaving Delhi he appointed Khizr Khan, Khizr Khan conquered Delhi in 1414 and founded the Sayyid Dynasty.
2	Mubarak Shah Sayyid
3	Muhammad Shah Sayyid
4	Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah Sayyid	. In 1451 an Afghan chief Bahlul Lodi defeated Ala-ud-din Alam Shah and founded the fifth dynasty the Lodi Dynasty

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

	Name	Know This
1	Bahlul Khan Lodi	First Afghan to rule Delhi
2	Sikander Lodi	Second son of Bahlul Khan Lodi, he was given the name Sultan Sikander Shah. He founded the town of Agra.
3	Ibrahim Lodi	Successor of Sikander Lodi, he became sultan in 1517, his attitude towards the powerful Nobles were not good so he became unpopular thus weakening the Sultanate. In 1526 he was killed by the forces of Babur in the First Battle of Panipat. Thus started the Mughal Dynasty.

The Sultanate: Important Developments:

Relationship between the ruler and the nobles

There was no rule of succession, anyone could become ruler, Turkish nobleman generally thought they were equal to the rulers as the rulers could not boast of a noble family name or the natural right to rule. The Chahalgani were a group of Turkish noblemen who enjoyed high administrative positions under Iltutmish. When Iltutmish died they tried to put a puppet on the throne who they could rule, Razia failed to suppress them and was killed. However Ghiyas-ud-din Balban succeeded in superssing the Chahalgani. He introduced rituals like Sijda and Paibos(lying on the ground and kissing the monarch’s feet) to show his superiority, he did not let the noble have their say and thus strengthened the monarchy.

Empire Building

During the early phase the Sultans only administered areas which were covered by the army known as garrison grounds. The materials (crops, money, and other material amenities) needed for such garrison grounds to grow were not available, so the Sultans conducted raids in areas where such materials were available. Ghiyas-ud-did Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq solved these problems as they captured new areas. The Sultanate took the shape of Empire during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Sultanate administration

Administration - First in the line of power was the Sultan. Under him were his Trusted Nobles (Turkish and Non-Turkish) and Ulama (religious people who advised the Sultan on judicial and religious matters)
Sulatanate Provinces Heads

The Sulatanate was divided into proviences called the iqtas. These were under the charge of walis or muftis.

The iqtas were further divided into shiqs and iqtas were under the charge of shiqdars.

The shiqs were further divided into parganas and parganas were under the charge of amils.

The parganas consisted of villages and these were headed by muqqaddams or headmen.

Patwaris and munifs were the other important officials, patwaris kept land records while the munifs looked after the collection of land revenue.

The samantas (landlord or chieftains) who ruled the hinterlands were brought under the direct control of the Sultan.

Sultanate in operation – The Tughlaqs

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was a learned man well versed in religion and philosophy. He tried ways to strengthen the Sultanate most of which failed but his experiments were acknowledged. He transferred the capital of Delhi to Devgiri in the Deccan so that he could control the Southern territories. He ordered many trustworthy officers, Sufi saints to move to Devgiri which was then renamed Daulatabad. The road from Delhi to Daulatabad was long many people died on the way, though the expirement failed but it improved communication between North and South India.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced the token currency as it was new system of monetization so it created confusion between traders and common people, people also started forging and the circulation of coins became more in market and the coins lost their value in market so the coin system was withdrawn.

He planned to raise a large army to attact the Mongols, so he raised taxes in the Doab region to feed his army but this region was in the grip of famine, so the peasants revolted there. His policy of appointing talented and efficient men to high offices failed due to the opposition of the nobles. Though his experiments failed still he is considered the most progressive Sultans of his time.

Decline of the Sultanate

The decline started in the Tughlaq Dynasty because of new kingdoms emerging in Malwa, Bengal, Gujarat and South India. It also further lost its authority due to the invasion of Timur. The South kingdoms had their own systems of rule while in the North the Rajputs and the Afghans emerged as important regional powers.

Get the word

Sultans - Turk or Afghan rulers from 1206 CE to 1526 CE(central Era)

Sultanate - A kingdom ruled by Sultans

Mameluk - An Arabic word for slave

Kharaj - Tax on cultivation on land

Chahalgani - A group of powerful Turkish nobles during the early days of the Sultanate

Iqtas - Provinces of the Sultanate

Walis - Heads of Proviences

Muftis - Provincial term used as a synonym for "walis"

Muqqaddams - Village Headman

Amils - Head of Parganas

Tanka - A type of silver coin

Garrison Towns - Towns with permanent presence of the army

Read More

Kinds of Sentences - Class 7 Grammar

Sentence - A sentence may :
(i) state a simple fact - positive or negative
(ii) ask a question
(iii) express a request, command, proposal or an advice etc.
(iv) express a wish
(v) express a sudden feeling
So, there are basically five kinds of sentences which are :
1. Statements or Assertive Sentences
2. Questions or Interrogative Sentences
3. Commands etc. or Imperative Sentences
4. Wishes or Optative Sentences
5. Exclamations or Exclamatory Sentences
Assertive Sentences - An assertive sentence is one that affirms or negates a fact. An assertive sentence that affirms fact is called positive or affirmative sentence, wherease an assertive sentence that deny or negate fact is called negative sentence. An assertive sentence ends with a full stop.
Example - I like this painting.
I love to watch movies.

---

Inerrogative Sentences - An interrogative sentence is one that asks about or enquires a fact through a question. Interrogative sentence ends with a question mark(?). Interrogative sentences are of two types:
i. Interrogative sentences starting with auxillary verbs (Is, Am, Do, Shall, Will etc.).
ii. Interrogative sentences starting with interrogative words (When, Why, Where, How etc.).

---

Imperative Sentence- An imperative sentence is one that expreses a command, a request, an advice or a proposal. An imperative sentence is spoken to a person who is present before the speaker. So its subject You is usually omitted. Negative imperative sentences begin with Do not orNever
Example - (i) Hurry up -     Command
(ii) Please hurry up -     Request
(iii) Study well -     Advice
(iv) Let us go for a walk -     Proposal

---

Optative Sentence - An optative sentence is one that expreses a wish or a prayer involving a blessing or a curse. An optative sentence has an exclamation mark(!) at its end.
Example - (i) Long live the Queen!
(ii) May you enjoy peace and prosperity!

---

Exclamatory Sentence - An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses a sudden feeling (joy, sorrow, applause, wonder etc.). An exclamatory sentence has an exclamation mark(!) at its end.
Example - (i)What a lovely flower it is!
(ii)Alas! I am ruined
(iii)Hurrah! we have won the match
(iv)Hello! how are you

---

EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Answer

1. What is an assertive sentence? Name its two kinds with two examples of each.
2. What is an interrogative sentence? Name its two kinds with two examples of each.
3. What is an imperative sentence? What do imperative sentences express? Give four examples to explain your answer.
4. What is an optative sentence? What does it express? Give three examples.
5. What is an exclamatory sentence? What do exclamatory sentence express? Give four examples to explain your answer.
6. What mark is put at the end of an -
   
   • Assertive sentence
   • Interrogative sentence
   • imperative sentence
   • Optative sentence
   • Exclamatory sentence

Exercise 2. Tell the kind (assertive, interrogative, imperative, optative, exclamatory)
1. How often do you take tea daily ?
2. A bevy of girls stood in the park.
3. May he be happy and prosperous!
4. She always has her way.
5. Never mix with bad children.
6. Let us go for a river-bath.
7. Is he a person to be trusted?
8. How lovely a child it is!
9. Stars twinkle like little lamps.
10. Alas! my wife is no more.
11. May the couple lead a happy life!
12. Sweet are the uses of adversity.
13. Who does not know this rogue?
14. Be off my eyes, rascal!
15. May you enjoy peace of mind!
16. Hurrah! daddy has come.
17. The train is not running on time.
18. Does your watch keep correct time.
19. Do not walk bare-foot on the grass.
20. What a fool I have been so far!
21. Call in the doctor, please.
22. It was a down daylight robbery.
23. Are you really out at elbows?
24. Ah! what a lovely rose.
25. Where has Ramesh gone today?
26. Bravo! what a fine catch.
27. May you suffer God's wrath!
28. Cursed be you, O tyrant!
29. May you go to the dogs!
30. May your husband ignore you, Shakuntala!
31. What though we happen to be late?
32. Ah, what a sight it was!
33. When can their glory fade?
34. How old are you?
35. I wish, I were young again!
36. Nights are always cool.

Exercise 3. Fill up each blank with a suitable word:
1. Assertive sentences affirm or _________ facts.
2. Optative sentences express _________.
3. Interrogative sentences ask _________.
4. Exclamatory sentences expresses _________.
5. Imperative sentences expresses a _________, _________, _________, _________.
6. The subject of an imperative sentence is _________ which is usually omitted.

Read More

Motion and Time - Class 7 Science

Motion and Time

Important Points

Motion is always relative to a stationary point

To measure slow and fast motion, time is needed

SI unit of time is s(second)

Speed is the distance travelled by a body in a unit time.
SI unit of speed is m/s
Speed = Distance covered / Time taken

A uniform motion is when a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time

A non-uniform motion is when a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time

Speed can be calculated from a distance-time graph by calculating its slope

The time period of a simple pendulum is the time taken to complete one oscillation
The time period of a simple pendulum does not depend upon the mass of the body

---

Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum contains a small mass(called bob), suspended from a fixed point through a long string or rod
The bob moves freely under gravity
The motion of pendulum is called oscillatory motion
When the bob of pendulum moves from one point, goes on the opposite side and comes back to its original position, it is said to complete one oscillation
The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its time period
The time period is independent of the mass of the bob
The time period of a pendulum depends upon the length of the string from which the bob is suspended. Longer the string, greater is the time period

Units of Time

60 seconds(s) = 1 minute(min)
60 min = 1 hour(hr)
24 hrs = 1 day
30 days = 1 month
365 days = 1 year
12 months = 1 year
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century
1000 years = 1 millineum

Practice Time

1. Fill in the blanks.
1. The speed of a body is distace covered in unit time.
2. To compare slow and fast motions, time needs to be measured.
3. Speed can be calculated from slope of a distance-time graph.
4. The SI unit of speed is m/s.
5. When a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time, its motion is called uniform motion.
2. True or False.
1. A sand clock gives most accurate time
2. Motion of Earth around the sun is a non-uniform motion
3. Motion of a pendulum is a periodic motion
4. In a graph, the independent variable is plotted on X-axis
5. The time period of a simple pendulum changes with the length of the string
3. Choose the correct answers.
1. In a distance-time graph, distance is plotted on the
2. Among two moving objects, the object with higher speed will cover
3. The SI unit of speed is
4. A car moving on a highway with different speeds at different time. Its motion will be
5. A boy sitting in a moving car is in motion with respect to
4. Answer the following in one sentence
1. Name the axes of a graph
2. Give two examples of uniform motion
3. Give two examples of non-uniform motion
4. Which type of motion is shown by a pendulum?
5. Mention two ways in which the speed of an object can be increased.
5. Answer the following in brief
1. A toy train covers 240m distance in 2 minutes. Calculate its speed in m/s
2. A car was moving at a speed of 50km/hr. Calculate the distance covered by the car in 15 minutes.
6. Define the following in one sentence
1. Speed
2. Uniform motion
3. Time period of a pendulum
4. Slope of a graph
7. Define the following in detail
1. With the help of an example, explain how will you calculate the speed from a distance-time graph?
2. Explain the difference between uniform and non-uniform motion with examples
3. Discuss how man started measuring time
8. HOTS
1. Draw the distance time graph of a ball thrown upwards
2. Draw a rough distance-time graph of a ball thrown upwards
3. What type of motion is shown in the following graph? Explain your answer

Read More

Force - Class 9 Science

Important Points

Force - Force generally denotes push or pull. Force can :
i. produce motion
ii. stop motion
iii. change the direction of motion
iv. change the dimension in a body
The SI unit of Force is N

Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's First Law of Motion - A body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless compelled by some unbalance applied force to change its state of rest or uniform motion.

Newton's Second Law of Motion - The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied unbalanced force and takes place in the same direction in which the force is applied.

Newton's Third Law of Motion - To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Momentum - The force(impact) which a body possesses due to the combined effect of mass and velocity is called momentum. Momentum is denoted by p, where p = m*v where m-mass, v-velocity
The SI unit of momentum is kgms^-1

Mass - Mass is the measure of an object's inertia, more the mass more the inertia. It is a property of material , so it does not change with place.
The SI unit of mass is kg

Law of Conservation of Momentum - In a given system, the sum total of momentum is a constant quantity, provided no external force acts on the body or
In a given system, when two or more bodies interact and no external force acts on them, the total momentum of all bodies is conserved.

Inertia - Mass of a body is the measure of its inertia, i.e., the more the mass of a body, the more is its inertia.

Law of Inertia - The tendency of a body to continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, unless some external unbalanced force is applied.

Inertia of rest - The tendency of a body at rest to remain at rest unless acted by an external force is called inertia of rest.

Inertia of motion - The tendency of a body in motion to remain in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted by an external force is called inertia of motion.

---

Questions and Answers

• Give two examples from everyday life where the Newton's third law of motion comes into place.
Ans. Example 1 - Rubber Ball rebounding: When we hit a rubber ball on the ground with some force(action), the ground reacts in opposite direction with an equal force and hence the rubber ball rebounds.
Example 2. Hurting of hand when we hammer a nail on a wodden plank - When we hit a nail with hammer on a wooden plank we apply a force then the nail reacts back with equal force on the hammer. As the hammer is held firmly in our hand, therefore, we feel hurt in our hand.


• Why does a boatman push the river bank backward with a long bamboo pole, on launching his boat in water? Explain.
Ans. It is based on Newton's third law of motion. When the boatman standing in the boat, pushes the river bank backward with a long bamboo pole, the surface of the bank reacts back and pushes the pole in the forward direction. As the pole is in the hands of the boatman, standing in the boat, the whole system moves in the forward direction.


• Why is it difficult to walk on marshy land? Explain.
Ans. It is based on Newton's third law of motion. When we push the marshy soil with our feet the soil yields. Thus, the reaction of the marshy soil is not as much as the action done on it. This makes it difficult to walk on marshy land.


• Why does a boatman push water backward with the oars, while rowing a boat? Explain.
Ans. It is based on Newton's third law of motion. When a boatman pushes water backward with the oars then water also exerts a reaction force which enables the boat to move forward.


• Why does a boatman tie his boat to a pillar, before allowing the passengers to step on the river bank? Explain.
Ans. When the passengers start disembarking, they push the floor of the boat backward with the feet. Now the boat is in water, and the water yields under the impact of this force. Thus, the boat starts sliding backward. To avoid the boat from sliding backward into water, the boatman ties his boat with a rope to a pillar before allowing passengers to disembark.


• Why do the birds flap their wings downward while taking a flight? Explain.
Ans. It is based on Newton's third law of motion. When the birds flap their wings downward they do action on the wind. The wind in turn reacts back and pushes the wings and hence the birds fly in the upward direction.


• Do the action and reaction act on the same body or different bodies? How are the action and reaction related to each other in :
  (a)magnitude and (b)direction? Do they act simultaneously or not?
Ans. Action and reaction act on two different bodies. Action and reaction are equal in magnitude but they act in opposite directions so there is simultaneous action and reaction.


• Why does a gun recoil backward when fired? Explain.
Ans. When the bullet under the impact of exploding gun powder moves out of the barrel from gun with a certain momentum, the gun, in order to conserve momentum, moves with the same momentum (momentum equal to that of bullet) in backward direction. So the net momentum is again zero. Thus, the gun recoils backward.


• Why does an inflated baloon rise up vertically for some distance, when punctured from below? Explain.
Ans. Initially, the balloon and the air in it, are in a state of rest and hence, have zero momentum. However, when the balloon is punctured from below, the air rushes out of it in downward direction with a certain momentum. Thus, in order to conserve momentum the balloon rises up vertically with the same momentum.


• Why do the pieces of cracker fall in all directions when it is burst? Explain.
Ans. When a cracker is not burst the momentum of the cracker is zero. When it is being burst the pieces move in all directions with certain momentum. However, if we add up the momentum of various pieces, the sum total of momentum will be zero.


• Why is it easier to stop a tennis ball than a cricket ball, moving at the same speed? Explain.
Ans. It is easier to stop a tennis ball than a cricket ball, moving at the same speed because the momentum of the cricket ball will be more compared to the tennis ball as the latter's mass is higher than the former's mass hence force required to stop the tennis ball will be less compared to the cricket ball.

Read More

The Vagabond - Class 7 English

Summary of the poem

R.L. Stevenson's poem "The Vagabond" is about the life of a vagabond(wanderer). The narrator wants to live a carefree life amidst the heaven, the land, the birds, the river. He does not yearn for wealth, friends, love, hope. He stresses repeatedly that he only wants the heaven above and the road below him, so that he can go places without worrying about the comforts of life. Nothing can reduce his spirit of wandering. He speaks of harsh conditions in autumn and winter but these also cannot deter his yearn to be on road. He knows that he would die sooner or later but he as long as he is alive he only treausres to live his life on road, with heaven above and the road below.

---

Stanza wise Explanation

1^st Stanza

In the first stanza the narrator tells that he wants a carefree life and all he wants to do is travel from one place to another. He wants the great outdoors, with the sky as his roof and a road to travel. He wants his bed in the bush so that he can see the stars. The narrator wants a humble life and is happy to dip the bread in the river instead of cup of tea or coffe and this is the type of life he wants forever

2^nd Stanza

The narrator here says that even though the misfortunes of life may come to him still he wants to be carefree. He is ready to face difficulties along his path but he will not stop wandering around nature. He does nto want riches, love or friend. He only wants the sky/heaven above and the road below him.

3^rd Stanza

This stanza tells about the hardships of life staying outdoors in autumn and in winter. He says that let the leaves of autumn fall on him that represents the beginning of old age. In autumn, the field looks barren as the leaves have withered off trees. The birds around are silent and are no longer singing on the trees. The cold is severe in winter that blood freezes and fingers turn blue. The fields are snow laden. The fireside is the only place that can give some warmth and relief. However, the narrator further states that even such harsh conditions will not stop him from living in the open because all he years is freedom from anything else.

4^th Stanza

Same as second stanza.

---

Meaning of difficult words

Vagabond - Wanderer

Lave - A stream or a rivulet

Jolly - Merry

Nigh - Near, beside

Dip - To immerse

Seek - Look for

Afield - In the field

Linger - To remain for a long time

Haven - A safe place

Yield - Surrender

---

Questions and Answers

1. What does the vagabond ask for in the first stanza of the poem?

Ans. The vagabond asks for a simple and worthy life that he loves. A life that is not bound to material wealth or wordly pleasures. The vagabond wants the sky as his roof and a road to travel. He prefers to sleep in a bush in the open green fields of nature so that he can see the stars at night. He loves a humble life and is happy to dip his bread in the river instead of a cop of tea or coffee.

2. What does the vagabon not wish for?

Ans. The vagabond does not wish for any wealth of the world or any material benefits. He also does not wish for a friend to know him nor does he hope for love. He only wants the natural surroundings and the heavenly bodies to be with him throughout his existence on earth.

3. What does he say about autumn and winter?

Ans. The vagabond talks about the harsh conditions in autumn and winter that he may have to face while living in the open nature. He wishes that the autumn leaves would fall upon him when he is in the white field covered in frost and snow. In winter, he wants to bite his finger which has turned blue because of the severe cold. He states that even in these harsh conditions he would not stop wandering because he desires this free life with nature.

4. What do you think of the life of a vagabond? Would you desire such life for yourself?

Ans. A vagabond is a wanderer who has no roof over his head. He probably would have no friends, wealth, love. He would have to face the harsh conditions living a nomadic life, there would be many obstacles, hurdles paving in his way of life. I would not desire such a life as for me friends, love, emotions, comfort of of my home matters.

5. What kind of imagery do you think the vagabond evokes when he talks about his ideal life?

Ans. The vagabond evokes images or clear skies, starry nights, dipping bread in river, a road that is unending and takes him to places, autumn leaves falling, open fields covered with leaves in autumn and winter, warming himself in fireside.

6. Why do you think the poet repeats the lines. 'All I ask, the heaven above/And the road below me' in the second and fourth verses?

Ans. The poet repeats the lines 'All I ask, the heaven above/And the road below me' in the second and fourth stanzas because he stresses on his objective of leading a carefree life. He does not want material comforts or being bounded by emotions. All he wants is a heaven above him and roads to take him to places.

---

Word Wise

Replace the highlighted words in these sentence with their synonymns from the poem.

1. Camping by the river with happy little children is a wonderful experience.
Ans. jolly
2. He was prepared for the worst calamity.
Ans. blow
3. Dennis was told not to loiter and finish his project quickly.
Ans. seek
4. High up on the hills, this winter the fields were frozen.
Ans. frosty
5. The old woman was looking for a safe shelter to spend the night.
Ans. haven
6. The soldiers were advised never to surrender to their enemies.
Ans. yield

Read More

How to write a Notice (Notice Writing)

How to write a Notice, Class 9

Notice - A notice can be described as a written or printed information. It is written to provide information about an activity or an event.

An example of Notice

Borkhola Boy's School, Cachar

NOTICE

Celebration of Yoga Day

30th May, 2021

Students are informed that “Yoga Day” will be observed on 21^st June, 2021 in the school premises. Every student is requested to bring a “Yoga Mat”. For more information contact the undersigned.

Malay Das
Student Secretary

Key points to remember while writing a notice

• Formal/Polite language
• Avoiding quote, writing in passive voice
• Avoiding first person, second person
• Should be short/compact/precise in minimum words possible
• There should be a difference between date of issue of notice and date of event
• The content must include complete information we should try to incorporate the 7 W's (who, what, where, why, when, in what way and for whom) while writing the notice.
• The notice should be presented within a box

Read More

Active and Passive Voice

Active and Passive voice - Class 7, Class 9

Active voice - The form of the verb which shows the importance of its subject(doer of the action) is called the active voice.

Passive voice - The form of the verb which shows the importance of its object(receiver of the action) rather than the subject, it is called the passive voice.

---

General Rules to express a passive voice:

1. The Passive voice is formed by using appropriate forms of the verb be with the third form of the main verb.
2. The object takes the place of the subject.
3. The subject is either left out or mentioned at the end as a mere agent of the action done.
4. The verb does not change its tense, but its form only.
5. The preposition by is mostly used to show the subject as an agent of action. Sometimes other prepositions like to, with, at and in etc. are used in place of by.
6. Prepositions inseperable attached with the verb in the active voice are not dropped while using by.
7. There is no passive voice of the verbs used in Future Continuous tense and the three (Present/Past/Future)Perfect Continuous forms.

---

Rules :Chaning various forms of verbs from active voice to passive voice

Present Indifinite Tense - Passive voice is formed by using is, am, or are before the third form of the verb.

Present Continuous Tense - Passive voice is formed by using is or am or are + being + third form of verb.

Present Perfect Tense - Passive voice is formed by using has or have + been + third form of verb.

Past Indefinite Tense - Passive voice is formed by using was or were + third form of verb.

Past Continuous Tense - Passive voice is formed by using was + were + being + third form of the verb.

Past Perfect Tense - Passive voice is formed by using had + been + third form of verb.

Future Indefinite Tense - Passive voice is formed by using will/shall + be + third form of verb.

Future Perfect Tense - Passive voice is formed by using will/shall + have been + third form of verb.

Read More

Adjectives - Class 7 Grammar

Adjectives These are words used to desribe a noun or a pronoun.

---

Adjectives have two uses:

Attribute-Adjectives are said to be used attributively when they are placed close to and before the noun which they qualify. Example - A good boy, A red ball. An adjective so used is called an Epithet

Note:A few adjectives such as former, olden, etc. can be used only attributively.

Predicative-Adjectives are said to be used predicatively when they express what is declared of some person or thing, and come after the verb. Example - The boy is good, The ball is red
NoteThere are a few adjectives such as alone, asleep, afraid, alike, aloof, alive, ashamed, awake, aware, content etc. which can only be used predicatively

---

Classification of Adjectives:

1. Proper - These are derived from some Proper Nouns such as Indian, British, Vedic etc.
2. Class - These describes the class or category to which the noun belongs. Example - Dowry is a social evil, We are in need of a financial help, We have many religious festivals
3. Color - These describes the color of its noun. Example - She has brown hair and blue eyes, Neena is wearing a pale green top.
4. Precision - These are used before the main adjective to make the description precise. Example - Your success in the last tough meeting is amazing, He is the only living heir to the throne.
5. Qualitative - These describe the quality or state of a thing. Exmaple - He is an honest boy, The brave man faced the angry crowd, This is a large city, The foolish old crow tried to sing.
6. Quantitative - These describe the quantity or number. Example - some, little, first, two, many, any, all, whole etc.
7. Distributive - These are used to refer to each and every person / thing separately. Example - each, every, either, neither, any, both etc.
8. Demostrative - These used to identify or express the relative position of a noun in time or space. Example - this, that, such, same, those etc.
9. Interrogative - These describes a noun that is used in a question. Example - which, whose, what, when, whose etc.
10. Emphasizing - These are used to emphasise statements. It heightens or reduces the effect of the noun they are modifying. Example - own, very etc.
11. Adjective Substitutes - An adjective substitute is not a natural adjective. It only functions as an adjective. Example - What an amusing show?, The dying man gave a statement, He is a known writer of books.
12. Compound - A compound adjective is made up of two or more words usually written with a hypen in between. Example - She is a good-looking girl, The built-up area is too small, I want a clear-cut answer to the question.

---

Comparision of Adjectives

Positive Degree - The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective. Example - tall, beautiful.

Comparative Degree - The comparative degree is the form used when a comparision is made between two persons or things. Example - He is taller than you., It is more beautiful than that.

Superlative Degree - The superlative degree is the form used when more than two things, or sets of things are compared. Example - He is the tallest boy in the class, She is the most beautiful of all.

---

Rules of Comparision

Adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding er and est in the Comparative and Superlative degree respectively.

Exceptions

1. When the Positive ends in e, the e of er and est is dropped. Example - wise - wiser, wisest; pale - paler, palest.
2. Whe the Positive ends in y preceeded by a consonant, y is changed into "i" before er and est. Example - dry - drier, driest.
   But when a vowel precedes y, it is not changed. Example - gay - gayer, gayest.
3. If the Positive degree ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, the consonant is doubled. Example - red - redder, reddest.
   But if it ends in two consonant, or has two vowels before the final consonant, the latter is not doubled. Example - thick - thicker, thickest; weak - weaker, weakest.

Adjectives of more than two syllables and most adjectives of two syllables are compared by adding more and most or less and least. Example - beautiful - more beautiful, most beautiful; active - more active, most active

All adjectives of two syllables ending in le, y, er and ow are generally compared as adjectives of one syllable

---

Comparisions

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Noble	Nobler	Noblest
Happy	Happier	Happiest
Tender	Tenderer	Tenderest
Narrow	Narrower	Narrowest

Irregular Comparison

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Bad, evil, ill	Worse	Worst
Far	Farther	Farthest
Good	Better	Best
Late	Later, Latter	Latest, Last
Little	Less, Lesser	Least
Many, much	More	Most
Near	Nearer	Nearest
Old	Older, elder	Oldest, eldest

Questions and Answers

1. What is the positive degree of an adjective used for? Give two examples
Ans. The positive degree of an adjective is used to express a quality in a simple positive way, i.e., only against a negative sense.
Example - Ramu is an honest servant.
Reeta is a charming girl.
2. What is the comparative degree of an adjective used for? Give two examples
Ans. The comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare two persons, things or groups etc. It is always followed by than.
Example - Ramu is more honest than Raju.
Reeta is more intelligent than Geeta.
3. What is the superlative degree of an adjective used for? Give two examples
Ans. The superlative degree of an adjective is used to compare a person or thing with a group. It is preceeded by the and followed by of or in.
Example - Ramu is the most honest of all servants.
Reeta is the most charming of all girls.
4. By what word is the comparative degree of an adjective generally followed?
Ans. The comparative degree of an adjective is generally followed by than.
5. By what word is the superlative degree of an adjective generally preceeded?
Ans. The superlative degree of an adjective is generally preceeded by the.
6. When is the not used before a superlative degree?

Ans. The is not used before a superlative degree in the following cases:

When a possessive word precedes the superlative degree.
Example. He is my best friend.
Rajesh has done his best.

When no comparision is meant but only a very high degree of quality is meant.
Example - This is most unfortunate.
That was most unwise on your part.

---

1. What is an adjective? Name its kinds
Ans. An adjective is a word that adds to the meaning of a noun.
The different kinds of adjectives are:
1. Adjectives of Quality
2. Proper Adjectives
3. Class Adjectives
4. Color Adjectives
5. Emphasizing Adjectives
6. Precision Adjectives
7. Adjective Substitutes
8. Compound Adjectives
9. There are no numeral, quantative and interrogative adjectives as these have become determiners(determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to) now.
2. What is an adjective of quality?Give five examples
Ans. An adjective of quality denotes some quality of its noun.
Example - Abdul Majid was a brave soldier
His watch has a golden chain
The Taj Mahal is a wonderful building
Delhi is an ancient city
An honest person is respected everywhere.
3. What is a proper adjective?Give five examples
Ans. A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun.
Example - The Gangetic plain is very fertile
The Indian nation is a great nation
European people are mostly fair
Fahien was a Chinese piligrim
The Turkish Empire was very vast.
4. What is a color adjective?Give five examples
Ans. A color adjective describes the color of its noun.
Example - She has brown hair and blue eyes
Rajesh wore a white shirt
Black color absorbs light
Your face looks redder than yesterday
White color radiates light
5. What is an emphasizing adjective?Give five examples
Ans. An emphasizing adjective lays stress on a fact about its noun.
Example - He looks a complete idiot
We are strict vegetarians
Netaji Subhash Chandra bose was a true patriot
What was the total expenditure to build your house?
I am reeling under utter despair
6. What is a precision adjective?Give five examples
Ans. A precision adjective is used before the main adjective to make the description precise.
Example - Your success in the last tough examination was outstanding
The old man was in his unusual white suit
He is the only living heir to the throne
Certain basic needs are common
You have told the same old story again.
7. What is an adjective substitute?Give five examples
Ans. An adjective substitute is not a natural adjective. It only functions as an adjective.
Example - The dying man gave a statement
That bearded man is my uncle
I have bought a furnished flat
Her pleasing manners are nice indeed
There is an alarming increase in expenses.

Read More