Fibre to Fabric - Animal Fibres - Class 7 Science

Clothes are an important part of our lives. We wear clothes to cover us, to protect us from extreme weather condition and harmful insects and animals. Clothes worn by people also give information about their social, geographical and economic conditions. In this chapter we will learn about Natural fibres - silk and wool.

Fabric - The material that is used to make clothing is called fabric.
Fibre - Fibre is the basic material from which the fabric that you use is made. Fibres are spun into yarn. This yarn is then woven or knitted into a fabric.Fibres are classified into two types:

Natural Fibres

Synthetic Fibres

Silk

Properties of Silk:

Smooth texture and shiny look

One of the strongest fibres

One of the most expensive fabrics

Silk is produced from silkworms

History

According to a Chinese Legend, around 5000 years ago, the queen of Emperor Huang-ti was having tea in the garden when one yellow colored cocoon feel into her tea and strands of thread separated from it. She discovered the thread to be strong and started weaving it into fabric. Hence, started the silk industry of China. The Chinese kept the silk production a secret for many years while trading it with other civilizations and making huge profits. The route taken by the Chinese traders for the exchange of silk is known as silk route. Eventually silkworms were smuggled out of China and production of silk began in other countries. China till date remains the largest producer of silk in the world.

Making of Silk

Silk is made from cocoons which silkworms spin around themselves. A single thread of a cocoon can be upto 1600 metres long. The structure of silk is like protein. It is a poor conductor of heat and keeps the body warm in winter and cool in summer. The silk producing insects are actually the larvae of silk moth, Bombyx mori, are domesticated for large production of silk.

Raising silkworms

A silk moth lays about 200-300 eggs and dies. The eggs are kept in temperature range of 25 to 31 C in highly humid conditions, for a gestation period of about three weeks. After that worms hatch out. The worms are then kept in bamboo trays and fed on mulberry leaves. The worms are protected from harmful insects by wrapping the trays with cotton cloth. The worms are continuously fed, cleaned and moved for 2-3 weeks, after that worms stop feeding, each silkworm now secretes liquid silk from an opening under its mouth. Within 2-3 days, they form a full cocoon around themselves called pupa. The pupa undergoes many changes inside the cocoon. A few weeks later, the adult moth comes out of the cocoon.

Extracting thread

The cocoons are then put in pots of boiling water to kill the insect inside and to make the outer coating soft and loose. Then the threads are pulled out by a special technique called reeling of silk.

Dyeing and spinning

The silk after reeling is dyed in different colors and spun into yarn. Different qualities of silk are separated based on the length and texture of the yarn.

Weaving

The yarn is then woven into beautiful fabrics.

Wool

Sources and Making of wool

Animals like sheep, yak, llama, alpaca, few breeds of goats etc. bear fine hair on their bodies to keep them warm. These fibres are the source of wool for us. Sometimes, special breeds of sheep are chosen to produce offspring which have very fine hair. This is called selective breeding.

Rearing and breeding

Sheep are reared and bred in herds in the mountains and open areas. Sheep feed mostly on grass and leaves; they are also given grains, corns and oil cakes. When the sheep have a thick layer of hair on their body, they are ready for shaving.

Shearing

Shearing is the process of removing the hair coat from a sheep’s body. The hair coat is removed using mechanical razors. Shearing is mainly done in summer as the temperature is hot and sheep can live without the fur. The hair removed from the sheep’s body is called fleece.

Scouring

The fleece contains lot of grease, skin and other waste materials. It is thoroughly washed with soap or detergents or diluted acid solution so that the fleece is clear of waste. This is called scouring.

Sorting

After washing and drying, wool fibres are separated into different categories based on the texture. This process is known as sorting.

Removing of burr

Here the fluffy fibres known as burr are removed and the wool is washed again.

Dyeing

The wool is then dyed into different colors.

Making yarn

After dyeing, the wool is combed either manually or in machines. Lastly the fibres undergo spinning to form the woolen yarn. The woolen warn is then knitted into clothes.

Occupational Hazards

Exposure to chemical agents

Many chemicals are used during the process of making wool from fleece and silk from silkworm. The chemicals are primarily used during dyeing, bleaching, washing etc. such chemicals can pose health hazards like respiratory disorders, skin problems, allergies, cancer etc.

Exposure to dust and fibres

The exposure of workers to dust from materials like silk, wool, cotton, flax, jute during weaving, spinning, cutting, packaging can cause allergies, nasal or bladder cancer.

Some Indian breeds of sheep

S.No.	Name of breed	Quality of wool	State where found
1	Lohi	Good quality wool	Rajasthan, Punjab
2	Rampur bushair	Brown fleece	Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh
3	Nali	Carpet wool	Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab
4	Bakharwal	For woolen shawls	Jammu and Kashmir
5	Marwari	Coarse wool	Gujarat
6	Patanwadi	For hosiery	Gujarat

Practice Time

Objective Type Questions

1. Fill in the blanks:
1. Silk is produced by         
2. The production of silk is called         
3. The silkworms feed on         
4. The hair obtained from sheep is called         
5. Scouring of fleece is done after         
Answers

1.silkworms
2.sericulture
3.mulberry leaves
4.fleece
5.shearing



2. True or False:
1. Sorting refers to washing of fleece:
2. Silkworms are actually larvae of silkmoths:
3. Shearing can kill the sheep:
4. To obtain silk, the silkworms are killed:
5. Wool is an insulator of heat:


3. Choose the correct answer
1. Which kind of cloth can be used in both summer and winter?
1. a.silk
2. b.wool
3. c.both a and b


2. Why are cotton clothes more common than silk cloth?
1. Cotton is less expensive than silk
2. Cotton clothes can be used in all seasons
3. both a and b


3. Is the fleece obtained from sheep is wool?
1. yes
2. no, it contains waste material


4. What is the difference between wool and beard of sheep?
1. wool is coarse
2. beard is coarse
3. there is no difference


5. Does silk need to be detangled like wool?
1. no, silk is obtained directly as thread from cocoon
2. yes


4. Match the following



Column A	Column B
1. Mulberry leaves	a. goats
2. Sericulture	b. silkworms
3. Scouring	c. silk thread
4. Reeling	d. fleece
5. Angora	e. making silk

Very Short-Answer Questions

5. Answer in a word or two:
1. Name two wool yielding animals.
2. Name the plant on whose leaves silk worm feed on.
3. Nane one occupational hazard related to wool industry.
4. Name the moth used for obtaining silk.
5. Write two properties of silk.

Short-Answer Questions

6. Answer the following in brief:
1. Define sericulture
2. Why are sheep shaved in summer?
3. Why is shearing not painful for sheep?
4. How does the silkworm product silk?
5. What is meant by sorting in wool production?

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Nicholas Nye - Class 9 English

Nicholas Nye

By, Walter De La Marie

Thistle and darnell and dock grew there,
And a bush, in the corner, of may,
On the orchard wall I used to sprawl
In the blazing heat of the day;

Half asleep and half awake,
While the birds went twittering by,
And nobody there my lone to share
But Nicholas Nye.

Nicholas Nye was lean and gray,
Lame of leg and old,
More than a score of donkey’s years
He had been since he was foaled;
He munched the thistles, purple and spiked,
Would sometimes stoop and sigh,
And turn his head, as if he’d said,
'Poor Nicholas Nye!'

Alone with his shadow he’d drowse in the meadow,
Lazily swinging his tail,
At break of day he used to bray,-
Not much too hearty and hale;
But a wonderful gumption was under his skin,
And a clean calm light in his eye,
And once in a while; he’d smile:-
Would Nicholas Nye.

Seem to be smiling at me, he would,
From his bush in the corner, of may,-
Bony and ownerless, widowed and worn,
Knobble-kneed, lonely and gray;
And over the grass would seem to pass
‘Neath the deep dark blue of the sky,
Something much better than words between me
And Nicholas Nye.

But dusk would come in the apple boughs,
The green of the glow-worm shine,
The birds in nest would crouch to rest,
And home I’d trudge to mine;
And there, in the moonlight, dark with dew,
Asking not wherefore nor why,
Would brood like a ghost, and as still as a post,
Old Nicholas Nye

Word meanings:

darnet    a type of grass commounly found growing in fields in Europe

dock    a plant of the buckwheat family with greenish or reddish flowers and long, broad leaves

may    the may blossom; a hawthorn plant

sprawl    slump; lounge; to lie with the arms and legs spread awkwardly

lone    lonely (state)

foal    a young horse

thistle    a prickly plant with purple flower heads surrounded by thorny leaves

gumption    courage, bravery

knoble-knee    knees that are uneven and bent inwards

    Exercises    

1. Questions


1. In what way does the poet feel close to the donkey?
Ans: The poet feels close to the donkey as each of them give the other a company. When the speaker sprawled alone in the orchard lonely, there was only Nicholas Nye with whom he could share his loneliness. The poet could empathize his loneliness with the miserable condition of the donkey.


2. How does the poet pass his day?
Ans: The poet passes his day in the blazing heat by sprawling on the orchard wall half asleep and half awake.


3. How does the donkey pass his day?
Ans: The donkey would pass his day by munching(chewing) the thistles. Sometimes it would stoop and sigh. In evening it would bray though not full of energy and liveliness, however, there would be boldness to make a smile showing the calmness in his eye.


4. What physical description does the poet give of the donkey?
Ans: Nicholas Nye - the donkey, was thin with gray colored hair, its one leg was lame(defective) and it was old as its age was over 20 years.


5. What characteristics does the poet see in the donkey?
   Which phrases give us clues about his character?
Ans: The poet describes the donkey as lonely this clue can be derived from the phrase "Alone with his shadow he’d drowse in the meadow, and Knobble-kneed, lonely and gray;". The poet also described it as gritty, inspite of all miseries there was calmness in its eye and a smile once in a while, this trait can be derived from the phrase "Not much too hearty and hale;..., And a clean calm light in his eye, And once in a while; he’d smile:-".


6. How are the natural aspects of the field and its surrounding described by the poet?
Ans: The field is an orchard covered with thistles, darnell, dock, in one corner of the orchard was a bush with may. The orchard had walls, birds flew and twittered in the orchard.


2. Reference to context

Read these lines from the poem, then answer the questions.


1. Half asleep and half awake,
   While the birds went twittering by,


1. Who or what is half asleep?
Ans: The poet(speaker) is half asleep.


2. When and where is the subject half asleep?
Ans: The subject is half asleep on the orchard wall.


3. Is the subject alone?
Ans: The subject was lonely in the orchard,however, there was Nicholas Nye(the donkey) as well in the orchard.


2. But a wonderful gumption was under his skin,
   And a clear calm light in his eye,


1. What does 'gumption' mean?
Ans: Gumption means gritty (showing courage and resolve).


2. Why is it surprising that the subject has gumption?
Ans: The subject (now the donkey) has gumption(grit willed) because inspite of all his miseries there was calmness in his eyes and a smile once in a while.


3. What is being said prior to this about the subject?
Ans: Before mentioning 'gumption' the poet(speaker) tells about his physical characteristics - lean, gray haired, old, one leg lame; then the speaker tells how it would munch the thistles sometimes stooping and heaving a sigh as if to describe its miserable condition, further the speaker tells that it would be half asleep in the meadow, lazily waging its tail, in evening it would bray though not full of energy and liveliness.

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The Tide Rises, the Tide Falls - Class 9 English

The Tide Rises, the Tide Falls

By, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

The tide rises, the tide falls,
The twilight darkens, the curlew calls;
Along the sea-sands damp and brown
The traveller hastens towards the town,
    And the tide rises, the tide falls.

Darkness settles on roofs and walls,
But the sea, the sea in the darkness calls;
The little waves, with their soft, white hands,
Efface the footprints in the sands,
    And the tide rises, the tide falls.

The morning breaks; the steeds in their stalls
Stamp and neigh, as the hostler calls;
The day returns, but nevermore
Returns the traveller to the shore,
    And the tide rises, the tide falls.

Word meanings:

twilight    the light from the sky when the sun is below the horizon

curlew    a large wading bird

hastens    walking hurriedly

efface    to erase a mark from a surface

hostler    person employed to care for horses

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    Exercises    

1. Questions


1. What time of day is it in each stanza?
Ans: In the first stanza it is evening, in the second stanza it is night and in the third stanza it is morning.


2. Where is the traveller going?
Ans: The traveller is going back to the town.


3. Which verb describes the traveller's movement; what idea does it create?
Ans. The traveller's movement is described by "hastens", it means that the traveller is waking fast.


4. What human attributes does the sea have, and what does it do with them?
Ans. The tides of sea rises and falls and so does such resemble human attributes - ups and downs, happiness and sadness of life. As the sea waves clear the traces of footsteps on the sand and moves on so does human; the obstacles, hindrances in one's life are overcome and we keep moving on.


5. Which parts of the poem seem old fashioned to you?
Ans: The repetition of the lines "And the tide rises, the tide falls" seem old fashioned as one is already aware of this eternal and never-ending process.


6. Which parts of the final stanza could symbolize the start of a working day?
Ans: "The morning breaks";"the steeds in their stalls stamp and neigh, as the hostler calls"; "Returns the traveller to the shore" symbolizes the start of a working day.


7. In what way are the cycles of time and tide constant (and keep going)?
Ans. The tide rise and the tide fall can be co-related with life: birth and death; the rising of the tide symbolizes birth and the falling of the tide symbolizes death. This phase is eternal and we cannot evade it.


8. What is the significance of the different times of the day mentioned in the poem?
Ans. The significance of the different times of the day mentioned in the poem conjugate with the passing of time in a human life cycle; the first stanza starts at evening which signifies old age; the second stanza describes night which signifies death; the third stanza describes morning which signifies birth.


9. What is the tone of the speaker in the poem?
Ans. The tone in the poem starts with a sad, subdued note and then gradually shifting into a peaceful, calm, relaxed tone towards the end.



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2. Reference to context

Read these lines from the poem, then answer the questions.

1. Along the sea-sands damp and brown


1. Which living things are on or near the sea-sands?
Ans: The "curlew" and the "traveller".


2. What are they doing?
Ans: The curlew is calling, and the traveller is hastening towards town.


3. What happens to all living things?
Ans: All living things face death.


4. Why do you think the poet uses the word sea-sands rather than the beach?
Ans: The poet uses the word sea-sands rather than the beach to sync with the words "damp and brown", if the poet would have used beach then it would have meant a pebbly or sandy shore. Also sea-sand is a better comparative than beach to comprehend the line "Efface the footprints in the sands".


2. ...but nevermore
   Returns the traveller to the shore,


1. What does return to the shore?
Ans: The traveller returns to the shore.


2. Will anyone know that the traveller was there?Why/why not?
Ans: This is somewhat vague as the poet doesn't specify details, he leaves us in a trail of mysteriousness.


3. What do you think has happened to the traveller?
Ans: The poet's withholding of information is key to the poem's meaning. The speaker narrated about one's life journey which is unknowable, inevitable and final. A presumption can be derived from the line "The traveller hastens towards the town," that the traveller must have reached an old age.


3. Darkness settles on roofs and walls,
   But the sea, the sea in the darkness calls;


1. What time of day is being referred to?
Ans: The time of day being referred to is night time.


2. Why does the sea appear to call?
Ans: The sea cannot call but the poet personifies it to life and states death is calling.


3. Give an antonym of the word "darkness".
Ans: The antonym of the word "darkness" in accordance of the poem is "morning" or "hope".


4. But the sea, the sea in the darkness calls;


1. Who calls in the darkness?
Ans: The sea calls in the darkness.


2. What are the things being done at this point?
Ans: The things that are being done at this point are : the waves of the sea erases the footprints in the sands, and the tide rises and the tide falls.


3. Why is the word "sea" repeated in the poem?
Ans: The word "sea" is repeated in the poem to personify "life" as the tides keep rising and falling and so does birth and death happens in a life-cycle.


5. The day returns, but nevermore
   Returns the traveller to the shore,


1. Why does the traveller not return to the shore?
Ans: The traveller does not return because he must have died.


2. What is meant by "nevermore"?
Ans. "Nevemore" means never again.


3. What time of day is mentioned here?
Ans: Morning time is referred here.

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Tom Comes Home - Class 7 English

Quick Answers

1. Answer the following questions in not more than one sentence.


1. From where does Tom return?
Ans. Tom returns from school to home for the holidays.

2. What does he get for Maggie?
Ans. Tom got a fish-line.

3. What had Maggie forgotten while Tom was away?
Ans. Maggie forgot to feed the rabbits.

4. Where does Maggie go after she tells Tom the truth about her mistake?
Ans. Maggie runs to her attic.

5. What does Tom take for Maggie whe he goes upstairs to call her?
Ans. Tom took a cake.

6. What does Tom wish for?
Ans. Tom wished that it would be wonderful if they got bigger and still went to school.


Reference to context

2. But Tom, all your rabbits are dead!
1. Who says this?
Ans. Maggies said that.
2. Why did the rabbits die?
Ans. The rabbits died because Maggie forgot to feed them.
3. How does Tom react to this piece of news?
Ans. Tom was shocked and angry on hearing the news.


3. Perhaps she is up in the attic and has forgotten all about meal times.
1. Who speaks the above line and about whom?
Ans. Mrs. Tulliver spoke the above line regarding Maggie.
2. Why is she in the attic?
Ans. Maggie was in the attic as Tom was angry and scolded her, he even told that she won't be going with him tomorrow for fishing.
3. When does she come down?
Ans. Maggie came down when Tom asked her to come downstairs and have some tea.


4. Oh, you are making me impatient!
1. Who says this and to whom?
Ans. Maggies said that to Tom.
2. What is making the speaker impatient?
Ans. The speaker "Maggie" wanted to know what was in Tom's pocket.
3. What do they decide to do after the suspense is revealed?
Ans. Tom told that he has two new-fish lines and they decided to go fishing tomorrow down by the Round Pool.

Read, reflect and write

5. Tom is unnecessarily harsh towards Maggie on learning that his rabbits have died. Do you agree? Give reasons to support your answer.

Ans. Yes, Tom was unnecessarily harsh towards Maggie after learning that his rabbits have died, he blamed her by saying that she forgot to feed them, out of anger he even said that she is a bad girl, and will not even take her to the Round Pool for fishing the day after. Maggie mentioned that she did not want them dead, she couldn't help to save them, she wanted to tell the reason but without listening Tom scolded.


6. Why does Maggie go to the attic? What happens when she sees Tom in the attic?

Ans. Once Tom knew about the death of his rabbits he became angry and scolded Maggie, Maggie would have wanted to tell but Tom paid no heed, she stood motionless, sobbing, as she was hurt and sad she ran towards her attic. When she saw Tom in the attic, she asked him to forgive her, told him that she will always be good and remember things.


7. Extended writing: Maggie and Tom share a strong bond. Give instances from the text to support this statement.

Ans. Intially when Tom came, he told Maggie that he got two fish-lines one for himself and the other for her and they would both go for fishing tomorrow.
After Tom went to his sister's attic, she asked for forgiveness, Tom asked her not to cry and gave her a cake to eat. He then asked her to come downstairs and have a cup of tea.
Once Maggie enquired if they could go fishing tomorrow and if he could put worms in her hook, Tom readily agreed.
Also after fishing they wished that how wonderful it would be if they got bigger and still went to school and holidays would be fun.

Word Wall

Analogies

1. An analogy is a way of stating a comparative relationship between two sets of words. Compare the analogies below.

a.	catch	:	fish	::	harvest	:	grain
b.	author	:	story	::	poet	:	poem
c.	plane	:	hangar	::	car	:	garage
d.	slither	:	snakd	::	waddle	:	duck
e.	canvas	:	painter	::	marble	:	sculptor
f.	bouquet	:	flowers	::	team	:	players
g.	animals	:	zoology	::	plants	:	botany

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Important Algebra Formulas and Identities with Step by Step

Important Algebra Formulas and Identities

Formula - Formula is a mathematical expression or rule.
Identity - An identity is an equation that is true for all the values of the variables.

Formulas

1. (a + b)² = a² + b² + 2ab
2. (a - b)² = a² + b² - 2ab
3. a² - b² = (a+b)(a-b)
4. a² + b² = (a+b)² -2ab
5. (a+b+c)² = a ² + b ² + c ² + 2ab + 2bc + 2ac
6. (a-b-c)² = a ² + b ² + c ² - 2ab + 2bc - 2ac
7. (a + b)³ = a³ + b³ + 3a²b + 3ab²
                   = a³ + b³ + 3ab(a+b)
8. (a - b)³ = a³ - b³ - 3a²b + 3ab²
                   = a³ - b³ - 3ab(a-b)
9. a³ + b³ = (a+b)(a² - ab + b²)
10. a³ - b³ = (a-b)(a² + ab + b²)

Deducing the Important Formulas

1. a² = a * a

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2. (a + b)² = (a + b)(a + b)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

                = a² + ab + ab + b²

                = a² + 2ab + b²

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3. (a – b)² = (a – b)(a – b)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

               = a² - ab - ab + b²

               = a² - 2ab + b²

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4 (i). a² + b² = (a + b)² – 2ab                     [ Back to Formulas ]

[As (a + b)²  = a² + 2ab + b² and to get a² + b²  we only need to add – 2ab]

 (ii). a² + b² = (a - b)² + 2ab  

[As (a - b)²  = a² - 2ab + b² and to get a² + b²  we only need to add + 2ab]

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5 (i). a² - b² = (a - b)² + 2ab – 2b²                  [ Back to Formulas ]

[As (a - b)²  = a² - 2ab + b² and  to get a² - b² we only need to add  + 2ab and – 2b²]  = (a - b)² + 2b (a – b)

          = (a – b) [ (a – b) + 2b]

          = (a – b)(a + b)

 (ii). a² - b² = (a + b)² - 2ab – 2b²

[As (a + b)²  = a² + 2ab + b² and  to get a² - b² we only need to add  - 2ab and – 2b²]

          = (a + b)²  - 2b (a + b)

          = (a + b) [ (a + b) - 2b]

          = (a + b)(a – b)

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6.(a + b + c)² = (a + b + c)(a + b + c)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

                   = a(a + b + c) + b(a + b + c) + c(a + b + c)

                   = a² + ab + ac + ab + b² + bc + ac + bc + c²

                   = a² + b² + c² + ab + ab + ac + ac + bc + bc

                   = a² + b² + c² + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc

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7.(a - b - c)² = (a - b - c)(a - b - c)                  [ Back to Formulas ]

                   = a(a - b - c) - b(a - b - c) - c(a - b - c)

                   = a² - ab - ac - ab + b² + bc - ac + bc + c²

                   = a² + b² + c² - ab - ab - ac - ac + bc + bc

                   = a² + b² + c² - 2ab - 2ac + 2bc

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Prepositions - Class 7, Class 9 - Grammar

Preposition - A preposition is a word placed before a noun or a noun-equivalent to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
Phrasal Prepositions - These are phrases working as prepositions.

Example - by means of, on account of etc.

Some Important Prepositions

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Since & For

Since is used before a point of time, while for is used before a period of time.

Example - I did not see you for a long time.
My cousin brother has been here since Monday last.

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Since and From

Both since and from are used before a point of time but since is preceeded by a verb in the perfect tense, while from can be used with any tense.

Example - Albert has started rowing from (or since) Monday last.
Albert started rowing from yesterday. (not since)
Albert started rowing from today. (not since)
Albert will start rowing from tomorrow. not since

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Before, by & within

Before and by are used with a point of time, while within is used with a period of time. Before means any time within specified limit of time and by means not after the specified limit of time.

Example - You must come back by 8pm. (not after 8pm)
You must come back before 8pm. (any time before 8pm)
Albert came back within an hour. (not before)

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In & within

In means at the end of while within means before the end of.

Example - The movie will end within an hour. (before the hour is passed)
The movie will end in an hour. (at the end of the hour)

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In & into

In refers to position already inside anything and into refers to a movement towards the inside of anything.

Example - I am in the garden.
I went into the garden.

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In & at

In refers to a much wider space or time than at.

Example - Lady Hydari Park is at Shillong in Meghalaya.

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In & after

In is used about the future time, while after is used about the past.

Example - I will come in a few minutes.
I have left after an hour.

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On & at

On is used before a particular date or day and at before a particular hour.

Example - I shall come on Friday at 9 o'clock.

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Between & among

Between is used about two persons or things, while among is used for referring to more than two persons or things.

Example - The money was divided between the two workers.
She is the most beautiful among all the girls in her class.

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Beside & besides

Beside means by the side of while besides means in addition to.

Example - Besides Mayank, his friends also sat beside me.

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By & with

By is used with the doer or agent while with is used before the object with which a person does a thing.

Example - The online test was not done by me.
The online test was done with the help of my friend.

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Except & excepting

Except means without while excepting means without excluding.

Example : Everyone came to the party except Albert. (Albert did not come)
Everyone not excepting Albert came to the party. (Albert came)

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To

To is used to refer direction or destination.

Example - After the lockdown, students need to go to school.

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Tenses - Class 7, Class 9 Grammar

Tense - The tense is the change of form in a verb to express the time of an action. There are three principal tenses.

The Present Tense describes an action in the present time.

The Past Tense describes an action in the past time

The Future Tense describes an action in the future time

Each of these principal tenses has four forms : Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous.

Tenses		Present	Past	Future
Indefinite	Rule	Subject + V1 form	Subject + V2 form	Subject + will/shall + V1 form
	Use	Universal truth, habitual action	Action in the past	Action that will happen in the future
Continuous	Rule	Subject + is/am/are + V (ing) form	Subject + was/were + V (ing) form	Subject + will be/shall be + V (ing) form
	Use	Action going on at present	Action that was goint on at past	Action as going on at some future time
Perfect	Rule	Subject + has/have V3 form	Subject + had + V3 form	Subject + will have/shall have + V3 form
	Use	Action just finished	Action complete before another past action	Action that will be completed in future
Perfect Continuous	Rule	Subject + has been + V (ing) form + since/for	Subject + had been + V (ing) form + since/for	Subject + will have been/shall have been + V (ing) form + since/for
	Use	Action going on and is not finished	Action had been going on in the past	No longer in practical use

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In 1192, Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated by Muhammad Ghuri in the Second Battle of Tarain.With this came to end the rule of Chahamana Rajput and a new line of rulers came to power, the new rulers were the Turks from Central Asia or Afghans called the Sultans.

The Sultans of Delhi - Class 7 History

The Sultanate period - 1206 CE to 1526 CE (320 years)

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)

	Name	Know This
1	Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210)	During his regime Qutb Minar in Delhi the tallest brick minaret was started. He died in 1210.
2	Aram Shah	Aram Shah was a weak ruler so was overthrown by Iltutmish
3	Iltutmish (1211-1236)	He ruled for 25 years. He introduced the silver coin known as tanka and the copper coin called jital. During his regime Qutb Minar was completed. He nominated his daughter Razia as his successor.
4	Razia (1236-1239)	The The nobles under her did not like Razia’s manners so they plotted against her and killed her.
5	Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban (1266-1287)	He died in 1287 and thus came the end of Slave Dynasty and the rule of Khaljis began

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320)

	Name	Know This
1	Jalal-ud-Din-Khalji	During his regime the Mongols attacked but he fought bravely against them and defended the Sultanate. In 1294 he was murdered by his nephew Ala-ud-Din Khalji.
2	Ala-ud-Din-Khalji	He conquered almost all of North India and most part of South India with the help of his favorite slave Malik Kafur. Ala-ud-Din died in 1316
3	Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah	The third and last ruler of the Khalji Dynasty. He abolished all taxes and penalties. He released all prisoners of war who were captured in battles. Khusru Khan his own slave killed him. Thus the Khalji dynasty came to an end.

Tughlaq Dynasty (1321–1414)

	Name	Know This
1	Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq	– He successfully defended the Sultanate from the Mongols. He conquered many areas including the Eastern part of Bengal. He built the city of Tughlaqabad outside Delhi. He died in 1325.
2	Muhammad Bin Tughlaq	The son of Ghiyas-ud-Din became the next successor. He was a knowledgeable person. His decisions were not popular with his subjects like shifting his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in Andhra Pradesh, increasing taxes in fertile Doab region met with failure. He died in 1351.
3	Firoz Shah Tughlaq	Successor of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq. He ensured that people in his kingdom were happy. He was not a strong military leader though so he was unable to defend the Sultanate. He died in 1388. The Tughlaq Dynasty lasted for another 26 years however none of the successors were able to prevent the collapse of the Sultanate.

Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

	Name	Know This
1	Khizr Khan	In 1398 the Timur the ruler of Balkh in central Asia invaded India and attacked Delhi. While leaving Delhi he appointed Khizr Khan, Khizr Khan conquered Delhi in 1414 and founded the Sayyid Dynasty.
2	Mubarak Shah Sayyid
3	Muhammad Shah Sayyid
4	Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah Sayyid	. In 1451 an Afghan chief Bahlul Lodi defeated Ala-ud-din Alam Shah and founded the fifth dynasty the Lodi Dynasty

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)

	Name	Know This
1	Bahlul Khan Lodi	First Afghan to rule Delhi
2	Sikander Lodi	Second son of Bahlul Khan Lodi, he was given the name Sultan Sikander Shah. He founded the town of Agra.
3	Ibrahim Lodi	Successor of Sikander Lodi, he became sultan in 1517, his attitude towards the powerful Nobles were not good so he became unpopular thus weakening the Sultanate. In 1526 he was killed by the forces of Babur in the First Battle of Panipat. Thus started the Mughal Dynasty.

The Sultanate: Important Developments:

Relationship between the ruler and the nobles

There was no rule of succession, anyone could become ruler, Turkish nobleman generally thought they were equal to the rulers as the rulers could not boast of a noble family name or the natural right to rule. The Chahalgani were a group of Turkish noblemen who enjoyed high administrative positions under Iltutmish. When Iltutmish died they tried to put a puppet on the throne who they could rule, Razia failed to suppress them and was killed. However Ghiyas-ud-din Balban succeeded in superssing the Chahalgani. He introduced rituals like Sijda and Paibos(lying on the ground and kissing the monarch’s feet) to show his superiority, he did not let the noble have their say and thus strengthened the monarchy.

Empire Building

During the early phase the Sultans only administered areas which were covered by the army known as garrison grounds. The materials (crops, money, and other material amenities) needed for such garrison grounds to grow were not available, so the Sultans conducted raids in areas where such materials were available. Ghiyas-ud-did Balban, Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq solved these problems as they captured new areas. The Sultanate took the shape of Empire during the reign of Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

Sultanate administration

Administration - First in the line of power was the Sultan. Under him were his Trusted Nobles (Turkish and Non-Turkish) and Ulama (religious people who advised the Sultan on judicial and religious matters)
Sulatanate Provinces Heads

The Sulatanate was divided into proviences called the iqtas. These were under the charge of walis or muftis.

The iqtas were further divided into shiqs and iqtas were under the charge of shiqdars.

The shiqs were further divided into parganas and parganas were under the charge of amils.

The parganas consisted of villages and these were headed by muqqaddams or headmen.

Patwaris and munifs were the other important officials, patwaris kept land records while the munifs looked after the collection of land revenue.

The samantas (landlord or chieftains) who ruled the hinterlands were brought under the direct control of the Sultan.

Sultanate in operation – The Tughlaqs

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was a learned man well versed in religion and philosophy. He tried ways to strengthen the Sultanate most of which failed but his experiments were acknowledged. He transferred the capital of Delhi to Devgiri in the Deccan so that he could control the Southern territories. He ordered many trustworthy officers, Sufi saints to move to Devgiri which was then renamed Daulatabad. The road from Delhi to Daulatabad was long many people died on the way, though the expirement failed but it improved communication between North and South India.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced the token currency as it was new system of monetization so it created confusion between traders and common people, people also started forging and the circulation of coins became more in market and the coins lost their value in market so the coin system was withdrawn.

He planned to raise a large army to attact the Mongols, so he raised taxes in the Doab region to feed his army but this region was in the grip of famine, so the peasants revolted there. His policy of appointing talented and efficient men to high offices failed due to the opposition of the nobles. Though his experiments failed still he is considered the most progressive Sultans of his time.

Decline of the Sultanate

The decline started in the Tughlaq Dynasty because of new kingdoms emerging in Malwa, Bengal, Gujarat and South India. It also further lost its authority due to the invasion of Timur. The South kingdoms had their own systems of rule while in the North the Rajputs and the Afghans emerged as important regional powers.

Get the word

Sultans - Turk or Afghan rulers from 1206 CE to 1526 CE(central Era)

Sultanate - A kingdom ruled by Sultans

Mameluk - An Arabic word for slave

Kharaj - Tax on cultivation on land

Chahalgani - A group of powerful Turkish nobles during the early days of the Sultanate

Iqtas - Provinces of the Sultanate

Walis - Heads of Proviences

Muftis - Provincial term used as a synonym for "walis"

Muqqaddams - Village Headman

Amils - Head of Parganas

Tanka - A type of silver coin

Garrison Towns - Towns with permanent presence of the army

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Kinds of Sentences - Class 7 Grammar

Sentence - A sentence may :
(i) state a simple fact - positive or negative
(ii) ask a question
(iii) express a request, command, proposal or an advice etc.
(iv) express a wish
(v) express a sudden feeling
So, there are basically five kinds of sentences which are :
1. Statements or Assertive Sentences
2. Questions or Interrogative Sentences
3. Commands etc. or Imperative Sentences
4. Wishes or Optative Sentences
5. Exclamations or Exclamatory Sentences
Assertive Sentences - An assertive sentence is one that affirms or negates a fact. An assertive sentence that affirms fact is called positive or affirmative sentence, wherease an assertive sentence that deny or negate fact is called negative sentence. An assertive sentence ends with a full stop.
Example - I like this painting.
I love to watch movies.

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Inerrogative Sentences - An interrogative sentence is one that asks about or enquires a fact through a question. Interrogative sentence ends with a question mark(?). Interrogative sentences are of two types:
i. Interrogative sentences starting with auxillary verbs (Is, Am, Do, Shall, Will etc.).
ii. Interrogative sentences starting with interrogative words (When, Why, Where, How etc.).

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Imperative Sentence- An imperative sentence is one that expreses a command, a request, an advice or a proposal. An imperative sentence is spoken to a person who is present before the speaker. So its subject You is usually omitted. Negative imperative sentences begin with Do not orNever
Example - (i) Hurry up -     Command
(ii) Please hurry up -     Request
(iii) Study well -     Advice
(iv) Let us go for a walk -     Proposal

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Optative Sentence - An optative sentence is one that expreses a wish or a prayer involving a blessing or a curse. An optative sentence has an exclamation mark(!) at its end.
Example - (i) Long live the Queen!
(ii) May you enjoy peace and prosperity!

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Exclamatory Sentence - An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses a sudden feeling (joy, sorrow, applause, wonder etc.). An exclamatory sentence has an exclamation mark(!) at its end.
Example - (i)What a lovely flower it is!
(ii)Alas! I am ruined
(iii)Hurrah! we have won the match
(iv)Hello! how are you

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EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Answer

1. What is an assertive sentence? Name its two kinds with two examples of each.
2. What is an interrogative sentence? Name its two kinds with two examples of each.
3. What is an imperative sentence? What do imperative sentences express? Give four examples to explain your answer.
4. What is an optative sentence? What does it express? Give three examples.
5. What is an exclamatory sentence? What do exclamatory sentence express? Give four examples to explain your answer.
6. What mark is put at the end of an -
   
   • Assertive sentence
   • Interrogative sentence
   • imperative sentence
   • Optative sentence
   • Exclamatory sentence

Exercise 2. Tell the kind (assertive, interrogative, imperative, optative, exclamatory)
1. How often do you take tea daily ?
2. A bevy of girls stood in the park.
3. May he be happy and prosperous!
4. She always has her way.
5. Never mix with bad children.
6. Let us go for a river-bath.
7. Is he a person to be trusted?
8. How lovely a child it is!
9. Stars twinkle like little lamps.
10. Alas! my wife is no more.
11. May the couple lead a happy life!
12. Sweet are the uses of adversity.
13. Who does not know this rogue?
14. Be off my eyes, rascal!
15. May you enjoy peace of mind!
16. Hurrah! daddy has come.
17. The train is not running on time.
18. Does your watch keep correct time.
19. Do not walk bare-foot on the grass.
20. What a fool I have been so far!
21. Call in the doctor, please.
22. It was a down daylight robbery.
23. Are you really out at elbows?
24. Ah! what a lovely rose.
25. Where has Ramesh gone today?
26. Bravo! what a fine catch.
27. May you suffer God's wrath!
28. Cursed be you, O tyrant!
29. May you go to the dogs!
30. May your husband ignore you, Shakuntala!
31. What though we happen to be late?
32. Ah, what a sight it was!
33. When can their glory fade?
34. How old are you?
35. I wish, I were young again!
36. Nights are always cool.

Exercise 3. Fill up each blank with a suitable word:
1. Assertive sentences affirm or _________ facts.
2. Optative sentences express _________.
3. Interrogative sentences ask _________.
4. Exclamatory sentences expresses _________.
5. Imperative sentences expresses a _________, _________, _________, _________.
6. The subject of an imperative sentence is _________ which is usually omitted.

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Motion and Time - Class 7 Science

Motion and Time

Important Points

Motion is always relative to a stationary point

To measure slow and fast motion, time is needed

SI unit of time is s(second)

Speed is the distance travelled by a body in a unit time.
SI unit of speed is m/s
Speed = Distance covered / Time taken

A uniform motion is when a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time

A non-uniform motion is when a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time

Speed can be calculated from a distance-time graph by calculating its slope

The time period of a simple pendulum is the time taken to complete one oscillation
The time period of a simple pendulum does not depend upon the mass of the body

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Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum contains a small mass(called bob), suspended from a fixed point through a long string or rod
The bob moves freely under gravity
The motion of pendulum is called oscillatory motion
When the bob of pendulum moves from one point, goes on the opposite side and comes back to its original position, it is said to complete one oscillation
The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation is called its time period
The time period is independent of the mass of the bob
The time period of a pendulum depends upon the length of the string from which the bob is suspended. Longer the string, greater is the time period

Units of Time

60 seconds(s) = 1 minute(min)
60 min = 1 hour(hr)
24 hrs = 1 day
30 days = 1 month
365 days = 1 year
12 months = 1 year
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century
1000 years = 1 millineum

Practice Time

1. Fill in the blanks.
1. The speed of a body is distace covered in unit time.
2. To compare slow and fast motions, time needs to be measured.
3. Speed can be calculated from slope of a distance-time graph.
4. The SI unit of speed is m/s.
5. When a body covers equal distance in equal intervals of time, its motion is called uniform motion.
2. True or False.
1. A sand clock gives most accurate time
2. Motion of Earth around the sun is a non-uniform motion
3. Motion of a pendulum is a periodic motion
4. In a graph, the independent variable is plotted on X-axis
5. The time period of a simple pendulum changes with the length of the string
3. Choose the correct answers.
1. In a distance-time graph, distance is plotted on the
2. Among two moving objects, the object with higher speed will cover
3. The SI unit of speed is
4. A car moving on a highway with different speeds at different time. Its motion will be
5. A boy sitting in a moving car is in motion with respect to
4. Answer the following in one sentence
1. Name the axes of a graph
2. Give two examples of uniform motion
3. Give two examples of non-uniform motion
4. Which type of motion is shown by a pendulum?
5. Mention two ways in which the speed of an object can be increased.
5. Answer the following in brief
1. A toy train covers 240m distance in 2 minutes. Calculate its speed in m/s
2. A car was moving at a speed of 50km/hr. Calculate the distance covered by the car in 15 minutes.
6. Define the following in one sentence
1. Speed
2. Uniform motion
3. Time period of a pendulum
4. Slope of a graph
7. Define the following in detail
1. With the help of an example, explain how will you calculate the speed from a distance-time graph?
2. Explain the difference between uniform and non-uniform motion with examples
3. Discuss how man started measuring time
8. HOTS
1. Draw the distance time graph of a ball thrown upwards
2. Draw a rough distance-time graph of a ball thrown upwards
3. What type of motion is shown in the following graph? Explain your answer

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